The hidden strain: How loan defaults are stifling growth for Nigerian businesses and households

We’ve all been there. If money is tight, an opportunity arises, or an emergency hits, and you’re unable to come through with the needed funds, what do you do? The logical step? Maybe a loan. For countless Nigerian businesses and households, credit isn’t just a financial tool; it’s a lifeline. It’s the seed capital for a market stall, the invoice discounting that keeps an SME afloat, or the school fees that secure a child’s future.

But what happens when that lifeline snaps? When loans stop performing, the ripple effects are far more profound than a line item on a bank’s balance sheet. The rising challenge of non-performing loans (NPLs) is a silent crisis, draining our economy, stunting business growth, and plunging families into distress. This is not just a story to excite your imagination or spark your inquisitive mind; it is not one about banks losing money. It is about the very real human and institutional costs of loan defaults in Nigeria.

In early 2025, the total stock of NPLs surged past a staggering ₦1.57 trillion, painting a clear picture of a system under distress. This is despite the government’s intervention vehicle, the Asset Management Corporation of Nigeria, set up in 2010 to stabilise the financial system and reduce the high NPL rates in the banking industry by taking over these eligible bank assets in order to free up the banks’ loan books to perform their basic lending activities.

What exactly are Non-Performing Loans (NPLs)?

Let’s demystify the jargon. A Non-Performing Loan (NPL) is a financial term used to describe a loan in which the borrower has failed to make scheduled payments of principal or interest for a specified period, typically 90 days or more. This classification indicates that the loan is in default or close to default, signalling a heightened risk of non-repayment. NPLs are a significant concern for financial institutions as they can adversely affect profitability and capital adequacy. The accumulation of NPLs within a banking sector may lead to tighter credit conditions, higher interest rates, and reduced lending activities, thereby impacting economic growth.

In the context of consumer loans, a loan is considered non-performing if payments are overdue by 180 days. The classification of a loan as non-performing is subject to regulatory standards and may vary across jurisdictions. For instance, the European Central Bank defines an NPL as a loan where there are indications that the borrower is unlikely to repay, or if more than 90 days have passed without payment. Effective management and resolution of NPLs are crucial for maintaining the stability of financial systems and ensuring continued access to credit for borrowers. Whilst a certain level of NPL is normal in any banking system, Nigeria’s figures have been a persistent cause for concern.

The domino effect: How one default hurts everyone

The domino effect of a loan default shows that the cost is never isolated, as it sets off a chain reaction that eventually touches every part of the economy. For banks, a default directly impacts profitability, as capital that should be earning interest becomes tied up in bad debt. To compensate for these losses and meet regulatory requirements, banks are forced to tighten their purse strings, becoming more risk-averse, lending less, and charging higher interest rates to everyone else to cover the shortfall from defaulters; this is the first domino to fall. For honest borrowers, the impact is immediately felt, as the cost of loan defaults is socialised: diligent business owners who repay on time now face higher borrowing costs, and access to affordable credit shrinks, punishing those responsible for the actions of others. For the national economy, a credit-starved environment leads to stagnation, with SMEs unable to expand, corporations hesitant to invest in new projects, and job creation stalled. Furthermore, a high level of non-performing loans deters foreign investors, who perceive it as a sign of financial instability.

“To protect tomorrow’s economy, we must restore today’s confidence in credit.” … Dr Ohio O. Ojeagbase

The crushing weight on Nigerian SMEs

If there is one sector that bears the brunt of this crisis, it is the small and medium enterprise sector of the economy, which serves as the engine room of our economy and the driver of the real sector, yet it remains the most vulnerable. Recent data is alarming. In the second quarter of 2025, small businesses recorded the sharpest drop in loan performance, with a default index falling to -7.2. The challenges faced by SMEs are immense, as they often lack the extensive collateral of larger corporations and are more exposed to economic shocks such as inflation and currency fluctuations. When an SME defaults, it is not just a statistic; it can result in stunted growth due to the inability to secure new funding for business expansion, resulting in job losses when the business closes down and employees lose their livelihoods. Another effect of the inability to obtain capital is the suffocation of innovation, as great ideas never see the light of day because of a lack of funding.

The table below breaks down the recent spike in default rates across different borrower categories, highlighting the acute pressure on SMEs:

The human cost: Household debt in Nigeria

Beyond the boardrooms, the crisis seeps into our homes. Household debt in Nigeria is becoming an increasingly heavy burden. With inflation squeezing disposable income, many families turn to credit to make ends meet. When they can’t keep up, the consequences are devastating.

The immediate effects are financial: harassing phone calls from collectors, the threat of asset repossession (like that car used for ride-sharing), and a damaged credit history that slams the door on access to future financial needs. But the deeper cost is human. A recent study explored the mental health impacts of debt and default, finding that the constant anxiety and stress can be damaging. The fear, the shame, and the feeling of being trapped take a severe psychological toll, affecting health, relationships, and overall well-being. Loan repayment issues transform from a financial problem into a full-blown life crisis.

Debt recovery in Nigeria: Not punitive, but essential

The term “debt recovery” often conjures images of aggressive confrontations. This needs to change. Effective debt recovery in Nigeria is not about punishment; it’s about responsibility and system preservation. A robust and fair recovery process is a necessary pillar of financial security. It ensures that capital continues to circulate, that lenders can remain in business to serve other customers, and that responsible borrowers aren’t unfairly penalised. The goal should be to create a system where recovery is efficient, transparent, and ethical, protecting the rights of both lenders and borrowers.

Building a new credit culture in Nigeria

Building a new credit culture in Nigeria requires a collective effort from all stakeholders in the value chain to break the cycle of loan defaults. Borrowers, both individuals and businesses, must embrace borrowing as a serious commitment by conducting due diligence, maintaining a clear repayment plan, and communicating proactively with their lenders if they encounter financial difficulties, as honouring debts is an ethical responsibility that strengthens their financial reputation. Lenders, including banks and FinTechs, should practise responsible lending by conducting proper affordability checks, educating customers on loan terms, and offering support and restructuring options before a loan becomes non-performing. Regulators, meanwhile, need to strengthen infrastructure by expanding the coverage and effectiveness of credit bureaus to ensure that credit histories, whether good or bad, follow individuals, while streamlining the legal framework for contract enforcement to make debt recovery faster and more predictable.

A path forward: From drain to gain

The tide of non-performing loans does not have to be a permanent feature of our economic landscape. By reframing the conversation from one of blame to one of shared responsibility, we can begin to address and reduce this drain. Debt should be seen not as a trap but as a tool; repayment should be viewed not as a burden but as a cornerstone of trust; and debt recovery should be understood not as a threat but as a necessary process to keep the wheels of our economy turning for everyone. When we honour our commitments, we not only protect our own futures, but we also invest in the growth of our businesses, the stability of our families, and the prosperity of Nigeria itself. It is time to build a credit culture that we can all rely on.

About the author:

Dr Prisca Ndu, who holds four doctoral degrees in credit management, banking and finance, leadership and management, and artificial intelligence, is a social impact advocate and multi-sector entrepreneur. An alumnus of the University of Ibadan, Lagos Business School, Harvard Business School, London Graduate School, Institute of Management Development, INSEAD, and Robert Kennedy College, Switzerland, amongst others. She sits on the board of several companies, including INDECO, KREENO Consortium, BHLA Awards, and many more. She was listed in 2017 among the most influential people of African descent by the United Nations and is passionate about nation-building.